What You'll Learn
The Concept
One of the most influential frameworks for understanding the development of American policing was presented by scholars George Kelling and Mark Moore. They divided modern policing into three broad periods.
During the Political Era (approximately 1840s–early twentieth century), police departments were closely connected with local political organizations. Officers generally patrolled on foot and knew their neighborhoods extremely well. Police performed a wide range of services in addition to enforcing criminal laws.
The close relationship between police and neighborhoods created valuable community knowledge but also significant opportunities for corruption and political favoritism. Hiring and promotions could depend upon political loyalty rather than qualifications. Police discretion was substantial, supervision was limited, and political machines frequently influenced police operations.
The Reform Era emerged during the early twentieth century and became dominant by the 1930s. Police reformers sought to transform policing into a professional occupation. Departments increasingly emphasized civil-service hiring, professional management, standard operating procedures, centralized command structures, police academies, criminal investigations, motorized patrol, radio communications, rapid response, and political neutrality.
Reformers such as August Vollmer played significant roles in the development of police professionalism. Professionalization dramatically improved police organizations, but it also produced unintended consequences. Officers increasingly moved from foot patrol into automobiles, and police operations became centered around responding to calls rather than maintaining continuous neighborhood relationships.
Beginning largely in the 1970s and 1980s, researchers and practitioners increasingly questioned whether random patrol, rapid response, and arrests alone could effectively address recurring crime and disorder. This questioning gave rise to the Community Policing Era.
Community policing encouraged agencies to combine professional law enforcement with community partnerships, problem solving, crime prevention, organizational transformation, community engagement, data analysis, and decentralized decision-making.
Kelling and Moore's three-era model remains widely used in criminal-justice education. However, students should understand that the eras are analytical frameworks rather than precise historical boundaries. Police departments did not suddenly transition from one model to another on a specific date. Elements of all three eras remain visible today.
Real-World Application
A police department that maintains a specialized community-policing unit while the rest of the agency operates primarily in a reactive, call-driven mode illustrates how elements of multiple eras can coexist. The specialized unit reflects Community Policing Era values; the broader organizational structure may still reflect Reform Era priorities. Recognizing this tension helps administrators understand why community policing initiatives sometimes struggle to take hold across an entire agency.
Why It Matters
For Police Officers
Understanding the three eras helps officers recognize that policing strategies are not permanent — they evolve in response to research, community expectations, technology, and organizational learning. Officers who understand this history are better positioned to participate in professional conversations about strategy and reform.
For Students
The three-era framework appears in virtually every introductory criminal-justice textbook and is a common foundation for exam questions, research papers, and academic discussions about police reform.
Think About It
What were the most significant unintended consequences of the Reform Era's emphasis on motorized patrol and rapid response?
Why might a police department find it difficult to fully transition from a Reform Era organizational model to a Community Policing Era model?
Can you identify examples of Political Era, Reform Era, and Community Policing Era characteristics in a modern law enforcement agency you are familiar with?
Sources & Further Reading
Kelling, G. L., & Moore, M. H. (1988). The evolving strategy of policing. Perspectives on Policing, No. 4. National Institute of Justice.
Walker, S., & Katz, C. M. (2012). The Police in America: An Introduction (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.